Compositions and methods comprising conductive metal organic frameworks and uses thereof

ABSTRACT

Compositions and methods comprising metal organic frameworks (MOFs) and related uses are generally provided. In some embodiments, a MOF comprises a plurality of metal ions, each coordinated with at least one ligand comprising at least two sets of ortho-diimine groups arranged about an organic core.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a is a division of U.S. application Ser. No.16/240,629, filed Jan. 4, 2019, entitled “COMPOSITIONS AND METHODSCOMPRISING CONDUCTIVE METAL ORGANIC FRAMEWORKS AND USES THEREOF”, whichis continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/309,023, filedNov. 4, 2016, entitled “COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS COMPRISING CONDUCTIVEMETAL ORGANIC FRAMEWORKS AND USES THEREOF”, which is a national stageapplication under 35 U.S.C. § 371 of International Patent ApplicationSerial No. PCT/US2015/029503, filed May 6, 2015, entitled “COMPOSITIONSAND METHODS COMPRISING CONDUCTIVE METAL ORGANIC FRAMEWORKS AND USESTHEREOF,” which claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. provisionalpatent applications, U.S. Ser. No. 61/988,952, filed May 6, 2014,entitled “COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS COMPRISING CONDUCTIVE METAL ORGANICFRAMEWORKS AND USES THEREOF” and U.S. Ser. No. 62/091,100, filed Dec.12, 2014, entitled “COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS COMPRISING CONDUCTIVE METALORGANIC FRAMEWORKS AND USES THEREOF,” each of which is incorporatedherein by reference in their entirety.

GOVERNMENT FUNDING

This invention was made with Government support under Grant Nos.DE-SC0006937 and DE-SC0001088 awarded by the Department of Energy. TheGovernment has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD

Compositions and methods comprising metal organic frameworks (MOFs) andrelated uses are generally provided. In some embodiments, a MOFcomprises a plurality of metal ions, each coordinated with at least oneligand comprising at least two sets of ortho-diimine groups arrangedabout an organic core.

BACKGROUND

Two-dimensional (2D) electronic materials are of considerable interestdue to their potential applications in future electronics. A commonexample is graphene, a thin organic 2D material with in-planen-conjugation. Although graphene exhibits exceptional charge mobilityand mechanical stability, its use in semiconductor-based devices islimited by its zero bandgap. Dimensional reduction and chemicalfunctionalization can increase the bandgap, rendering graphenesemiconducting, but such methods generally reduce its charge mobilityand can introduce numerous defects. This has led to a sustained efforttowards identifying 2D materials with intrinsic non-zero bandgaps thatcould replace conventional semiconductors. Two other broad classes ofmaterials have been investigated: the layered metal chalcogenides (e.g.,MoS₂, WSe₂) and 2D covalent-organic frameworks (COFs). The former can bedeposited as large-area single sheets in a “top-down” approach. Theyhave been shown to perform well in device testing, but do not easilylend themselves to chemical functionalization and tunability. Incontrast, COFs generally are prepared by “bottom-up” solution-basedsynthetic methods. While COFs are attractive because they are subject torational modification, the electronic properties of COFs are largelyinferior to metal chalcogenides because the functional groups used toconnect their building blocks typically do not allow in-planeconjugation.

Accordingly, improved compositions and methods are needed.

SUMMARY

In some embodiments, a metal organic framework is provided comprising aplurality of metal ions, each coordinated with at least one ligandcomprising at least two sets of ortho-diimine groups arranged about anorganic core.

In some embodiments, a method of synthesizing a porous metal organicframework (MOF) is provided comprising exposing a plurality of metalions to a plurality of precursor ligands in the presence of an oxidantand a base to form a MOF comprising a portion of the plurality of metalions each coordinated with at least one ligand, wherein each ligandcomprises at least two sets of ortho-diimine groups arranged about anorganic core.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows a non-limiting example of a MOF, according to someembodiments;

FIG. 2 illustrates a synthetic method for a non-limiting MOF, accordingto some embodiments;

FIG. 3 shows UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra for non-limiting MOFs,according to some embodiments;

FIG. 4 shows SEMs (top) and AFM images (bottom) for non-limiting MOFs,according to some embodiments;

FIG. 5 shows experimental and simulated PXRD spectra for a non-limitingto MOF, according to some embodiments:

FIG. 6 illustrates a synthetic method for a non-limiting MOF, accordingto some embodiments;

FIG. 7 shows experimental and simulated PXRD spectra for a non-limitingMOF, according to some embodiments;

FIG. 8 shows SEMs images for non-limiting MOFs, according to someembodiments;

FIG. 9 illustrates a schematic of an apparatus used in chemiresistivesensing, according to some embodiments;

FIG. 10 shows a graph of the relative response of a non-limiting MOFdevice to various concentrations of ammonia diluted with nitrogen gas,according to some embodiments;

FIG. 11 shows a graph of the response of a MOF device versus ammoniaconcentration, according to some embodiments; and

FIG. 12 shows a cyclic voltammogram for a MOF device, according to someembodiments;

FIG. 13 shows a Nyquist plot for a MOF device, according to someembodiments;

FIG. 14 shows a graph of imaginary capacitance against frequency,according to some embodiments; and

FIG. 15 shows a graph of capacitance retention percentage versus cyclenumber, according to some embodiments.

Other aspects, embodiments, and features of the invention will becomeapparent from the following detailed description when considered inconjunction with the accompanying drawings. The accompanying figures areschematic and are not intended to be drawn to scale. For purposes ofclarity, not every component is labeled in every figure, nor is everycomponent of each embodiment of the invention shown where illustrationis not necessary to allow those of ordinary skill in the art tounderstand the invention. All patent applications and patentsincorporated herein by reference are incorporated by reference in theirentirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, includingdefinitions, will control.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Compositions and methods comprising metal organic frameworks (MOFs) andrelated uses are generally provided. In some embodiments, a MOFcomprises a plurality of metal ions, each coordinated with at least oneligand comprising at least two sets of ortho-diimine groups arrangedabout an organic core.

The term “metal-organic framework” is given its ordinary meaning in theart and refers to a one-, two-, or three-dimensional coordinationpolymer including metal ions and ligands which function as organicstructural units, wherein a portion of the metal ions are eachchemically bonded to at least one bi-, tri- or poly-dentate ligand. Themetal ions, in addition to being coordinated with at least one organicstructure unit, may also be bound to one or more auxiliary ligands, asdescribed in more detail herein.

In some embodiments, a MOF comprises a plurality of metal ions, eachcoordinated with at least one ligand comprising at least two sets ofortho-diimine groups arranged about an organic core. In someembodiments, the at least one ligand comprises at least twoortho-phenylenediimine units. In some embodiments, a portion of themetal ions are associated with two, three, or four ligands, and each ofthose ligand is individually associated with one, two, three, or fourmetal ions. In some embodiments, a portion of the metal ions areassociated with two ligands, and each of those ligands is individuallyassociated with two metal ions. In some embodiments, a portion of themetal ions are associated with three ligands, and each of those ligandsis individually associated with three metal ions. In some embodiments, aportion of the metal ions are associated with two ligands, and each ofthose ligands is individually associated with three metal ions. In someembodiments, a ligand is charged. In some embodiments, a ligand has acharge of (−1), or (−2), or (−3), or (−4). In some embodiments, a ligandhas a charge of (−2).

In some embodiments each ligand comprises two sets of ortho-diiminegroups.

In some embodiments, each ligand comprising two sets of ortho-dii minegroups may be associated with two metal atoms. In some embodiments, eachligand comprises three sets of ortho-diimine groups. In someembodiments, each ligand comprising three sets of ortho-diimine groupsmay be associated with three metal atoms. In some embodiments, eachligand comprises four sets of ortho-diimine groups. In some embodiments,each ligand comprising four sets of ortho-diimine groups may beassociated with four metal atoms.

In some embodiments, the at least one ligand comprises at least two setsof ortho-phenylenediimine units. In some embodiments, the at least oneligand comprises two sets of ortho-phenylenediimine units. In someembodiments, the at least one ligand comprises three sets ofortho-phenylenediimine units. In some embodiments, the at least oneligand comprises four sets of ortho-phenylenediimine units.

The organic core comprising at least two set of ortho-diimine groups maybe any suitable core. In some embodiments, the core is aromatic.Generally, the core comprises a rigid structure formed from fused aryland/or heteroaryl rings. In some embodiments, the organic core comprisesa plurality of fused aryl and/or heteroaryl rings. In some cases, theorganic core comprises a plurality of fused aryl rings. In some cases,the organic core comprises one or more of benzyl, thiophenyl,carbazolyl, pyrrolyl, indolyl, and furanyl rings.

In some embodiments, the at least one ligand comprising at least twosets of ortho-diimine groups arranged about an organic core comprisesthe structure:

wherein n is 1, 2, or 3, and C represent one or more bonds formedbetween ring A and each ring B. In some cases, n is 1. In some cases, nis 2. In some cases, n is 3.

In some embodiments, the at least one ligand comprises the structure:

wherein each R¹ is the same or different and is selected from the groupconsisting of hydrogen, —NO₂, —R′, —F, —Cl, —Br, —I, —CN, —NC, —SO₃R′,—SO₃H, —OR′, —OH, —SR′, —SH, —PO₃R′, —PO₃H, —CF₃, —NR′₂, —NHR′, and—NH₂, wherein each R′ is the same or different and is optionallysubstituted alkyl or optionally substituted aryl. In some embodiments,the at least one ligand comprises the structure:

Other non-limiting examples of ligands include:

wherein each R¹ is the same or different and is selected from the groupconsisting of hydrogen, —N₂, —R′, —F, —Cl, —Br, —I, —CN, —NC, —SO₂R′,—SO₃H, —OR′, —OH, —SR′. —SH, —PO₃R′, —PO₃H, —CF₃, —NR′₂, —NHR′, and—NH₂; each X is the same or different and is selected from the groupconsisting of NR′, O, S, Se, and Te; and each R′ is the same ordifferent and is optionally substituted alkyl or optionally substitutedaryl. In some embodiments, each R¹ is hydrogen. In some embodiments,each X is the same or different and is selected from the groupconsisting of NR′, O, and S. In some embodiments, each X is NR′. In someembodiments, each X is O. In some embodiments, each X is S. In someembodiments, each X is Se. In some embodiments, each X is Te. In someembodiments, each R′ is H.

In some embodiments, more than one type of ligand may be employed, forexample, a first type of ligand and a second type of ligand. The two ormore types of ligands may be provided in any suitable ratio. The two ormore types of ligands may be provided in any suitable ratio.

Any suitable metal ion may be employed. Each metal ion may be amonovalent, divalent, or trivalent. In some embodiments, each metal ionis a monovalent metal ion. Non-limiting examples of monovalent metalions are Ag⁺, Cu⁺, and Au⁺. In some cases, the metal ion is Cu⁺. In someembodiments, the metal ion is a divalent metal ion. Non-limitingexamples of monovalent metal ions are Mg²⁺, Mn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Co²⁺, Ni²⁺,Cu²⁺, Pd²⁺, Pt²⁺, Ru²⁺, Cd²⁺, Zn²⁺, Pb²⁺, Hg²⁺, V²⁺, Cr²⁺, and Ni⁺². Insome cases, the metal ion is Ni⁺². In some cases, the metal ion is Cu²⁺.In some embodiments, the metal ion is a trivalent metal ion.Non-limiting examples of trivalent metal ions are Fe³⁺, V³⁺, Ti³⁺, Sc³⁺,Al³⁺, In³⁺, Ga³⁺, Mn³⁺, Co³⁺, and Cr³⁺. In some embodiments, a metalorganic framework (MOF) may comprise two or more metal ions having adifferent valency. For example, the metal organic framework may compriseone or more monovalent metal ion and one or more divalent metal ion. Insome such embodiments, the one or more ligand may be redox active and/orable to accommodate the different redox states of the metal ion. In someembodiments, the one or more metal ions may be the same metal ion but indifferent redox states (e.g., Cu⁺ and Cu⁺²).

In some embodiments, more than one type of metal ion may be employed,for example, a first type of metal ion and a second type of metal ion.In some cases, the first type of metal ion and the second type of metalion have the same valency. For example, the first type of metal ion maybe a first type divalent metal ion and the second type of metal ion maybe a second type of divalent metal ion. The two or more types of metalions may be provided in any suitable ratio.

In some embodiments, a metal ion may be associated with one or moreauxiliary ligands. In some cases, the one or more auxiliary ligands maybe found above and/or below the metal ion (e.g., as apical ligands). Anauxiliary ligand may or might not be charged. Non-limiting examples ofauxiliary ligands include halides (e.g., chlorine, fluorine, bromine,iodine), other salts (e.g., nitrate, carbonate, sulfonate, etc.), andcoordinating solvents (e.g., water, pyridine, tetrahydrofuran, diethylether, etc.).

In some embodiments, methods of synthesis are provided. In some cases, amethod of synthesizing a MOF comprises exposing a plurality of metalions to a plurality of precursor ligands in the presence of an oxidantand a base to form a MOF comprising to a portion of the plurality ofmetal ions each coordinated with at least one ligand, wherein eachligand comprises at least two sets of ortho-diimine groups arrangedabout an organic core. Non-limiting examples of ligands comprises atleast two sets of ortho-diimine groups arranged about an organic coreare described herein. In some embodiments, the metal ion is provided asa salt, and the at least one precursor ligand provided comprises atleast two sets of ortho-diamine groups. During the course of thereaction, the diamine groups of the precursor ligand are oxidized intothe corresponding diimine group, which coordinates with a metal ion. Insome cases, the precursor ligand comprises at least two sets ofortho-phenylenediamine groups, and during the course of the reaction,the precursor ligand is oxidized so that each ortho-phenylenediaminegroup is transformed into an ortho-phenylenediimine group, whichcoordinates with a metal ion.

The metal ion and the precursor ligand may be provided in any suitableamounts. In some embodiments, the mole ratio of the metal ion to theprecursor ligand may be based upon the coordination of the metal ion tothe ligand. For example, in embodiments where the ligand is coordinatedwith three metal ions, and each metal ion is associated with twoligands, the mole ratio of the metal ion to the precursor ligand may beabout least 3:2. As another example, in embodiments, where the ligand iscoordinated with two metal ions, and each metal ion is associated withone ligand, the mole ratio of the metal ion to the precursor ligand mayabout 2:1. In some embodiments, the precursor ligand is providing inslight mole excess as compared to the metal ion.

In some embodiments, the metal ions are provided as a salt. Non-limitingexamples of salts chloride, fluoride, bromide, iodide, triflate, BF₄,PF₆, NO₃ ⁻, SO₄ and ClO₄ ⁻ salts. In some cases, the salt is S₄ ²⁻.

In some embodiments, the at least one precursor ligand comprising atleast two sets of ortho-diamine groups arranged about an organic corecomprises the structure:

wherein n is 1, 2, or 3, and C represent one or more bonds formedbetween ring A and each ring B. In some cases, n is 1. In some cases, nis 2. In some cases, n is 3 In some embodiments, the at least oneprecursor ligand comprises the structure:

wherein each R¹ is the same or different and is selected from the groupconsisting of hydrogen, —NO₂, —R′, —F, —Cl, —Br, —I, —CN, —NC, —SO₃R′,—SO₃H, —OR′, —OH, —SR′, —SH, —PO₃R′, —PO₃H, —CF₃, —NR′₂, —NHR′, and—NH₂, wherein each R′ is the same or different and is optionallysubstituted alkyl or optionally substituted aryl. In some embodiments,the at least one precursor ligand comprises the structure:

Other non-limiting examples of precursor ligands include:

wherein each R¹ is the same or different and is selected from the groupconsisting of hydrogen, —NO₂, —R′, —F, —Cl, —Br, —I, —CN, —NC, —SO₃R′,—SO₃H, —OR′, —OH, —SR′, —SH, —PO₃R′, —PO₁H, —CF₃, —NR′₂, —NHR′, and—NH₂; each X is the same or different and is selected from the groupconsisting of NR′, O, S, Se, and Te; and each R′ is the same ordifferent and is optionally substituted alkyl or optionally substitutedaryl. In some embodiments, each R¹ is hydrogen. In some embodiments,each X is the same or different and is selected from the groupconsisting of NR′, O, and S. In some embodiments, each X is NR′. In someembodiments, each X is O. In some embodiments, each X is S. In someembodiments, each X is Se. In some embodiments, each X is Te. In someembodiments, each R′ is H.

Any suitable base may be utilized in the synthetic methods describedherein.

Non-limiting examples of bases include NR″₃ wherein each R″ is the sameor different and is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, oroptionally substituted aryl; QOH, wherein Q is a cation (e.g., a metalcation, a semi-metal cation, NH₄); acetate. In some embodiments, thebase is NH₃ or NH₄OH. In some embodiments, the base is selected to havea higher pH as compared to the amino groups on the precursor ligand.

Any suitable oxidant may be employed. In some embodiments, the oxidantis oxygen. In some embodiments, the oxidant is a chemical oxidant.Non-limiting examples of oxidants include air, oxygen, ferricinium,nitrosonium, Ag²⁺, Ag⁺, Fe⁺³, MnO₄ ⁻, and CrO₄ ⁻. The oxidant may bepresent in an amount suitable to aid in the oxidation of the precursorligand. In some embodiments, the oxidant is present in excess.

Any suitable solvent may be utilized in the synthetic methods describedherein. Non-limiting examples of solvents include water, methanol,ethanol, propanol, benzene, p-cresol, toluene, xylene, diethyl ether,glycol, diethyl ether, petroleum ether, hexane, cyclohexane, pentane,methylene chloride, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, dioxane,tetrahydrofuran (THF), dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylformamide,hexamethyl-phosphoric triamide, ethyl acetate, pyridine, triethylamine,picoline, mixtures thereof, or the like. In some embodiments, thesolvent is water.

The methods of synthesis described herein may be carried out at anysuitable temperature. In some cases, the reaction is carried out atabout room temperature (e.g., about 25° C., about 20° C., between about20° C. and about 25° C., or the like). In some cases, however, thereaction is carried out at temperatures below or above room temperature.In some embodiments, the reaction is carried at a temperature betweenabout 25° C. and about 100° C., or between about 35° C. and about 95°C., or between about 45° C. and about 85° C., or between about 55° C.and about 75° C.

MOFs synthesized using the methods described herein may be purifiedusing techniques known to those of ordinary skill in the art. In someembodiments, a synthesized MOF may be washed, sometimes involving aSoxhlet extractor, boiled, and/or sonicated (e.g., to remove excessstarting materials).

The synthetic methods described herein may provide for rapid synthesisof a wide range of MOFs. The ability to synthesize MOFs rapidly may beuseful for the screening of known, as well as new MOFs, to determine theconductivity of the MOF.

The MOFs, in some cases, may be formed as a film on a surface of amaterial. The film may be formed using techniques known to those ofordinary skill in the art. For example, the film may be formed byspin-casting method, drop-casting method, dip coating method, rollcoating method, screen coating method, a spray coating method, screenprinting method, ink-jet method, and the like. In some cases, thethickness of the film may be less than about 100 um (micrometer), lessthan about 10 um, less than about 1 um, less than about 100 nm, lessthan about 10 nm, less than about 1 nm, or thinner. In some cases, thefilm may have a thickness greater than 1 mm. In some embodiments, thesubstrate on which the film is formed may be a conductive. For example,the substrate may comprise quartz, indium-tin-oxide coated glass,silicon wafer, etc.

In some embodiments, the MOFs formed (e.g., a film of an MOF) maycomprise little or no excess metal ions. That is, the MOF comprisesessentially no metal ions which are not coordinated with a ligandcomprising at least two ortho-diimine groups (i.e., “free metal ions”).In some embodiments, the MOF comprises less than about 0.5 wt %, or lessthen about 0.4 wt %, or less then about 0.3 wt %, or less than about 0.2wt %, or less then about 0.1 wt %, or less than about 0.05 wt %, or lessthan about 0.03 wt %, or less than about 0.02 wt %, or less than about0.01 wt %, or less than about 0.005 wt %, or less than about 0.001 wt %of free metal ions. Those of ordinary skill in the art will be aware ofmethods for determining the amount of free metal ions, for example,using XPS (e.g., see Example 1).

The MOFs described herein or the MOFs synthesized using the methodsdescribed herein may be utilized in a wide variety of applications. Insome embodiments, the MOFs described herein are conductive. In suchembodiments, the MOFs may be employed in applications in thesemiconductor, chemical, and/or electronics industries. Non-limitingexamples of such applications include electrochemical sensors,electrocatalysts, and electronic devices (e.g., light-emitting diodes,photovoltaic solar cells, and transistors). In some cases, thesubstituents of the ligands (e.g., comprising at least two sets ofortho-diamine units) may be tuned to provide the desired properties. Asthe molecular building blocks can be changed by synthetic manipulationsand/or by changing the metal precursor, the MOFs described herein havevariable electrical conductivity that can be tuned to be suitable forone or more of the applications described herein.

In some embodiments, the MOFs may be used for chemical sensing. TheMOFs, in some instances, may be used to detect the presence, absence,and/or concentration of one or more target analytes. For instance, aMOF, described herein, comprising a metal ion (e.g., Cu²⁺) may be usedto detect a target analyte, such as ammonia (e.g., in the vapor phase).In some embodiments, a MOF device for chemical sensing may comprise aporous metal organic framework comprising a plurality of metal ions,each coordinated with at least one ligand comprising at least two setsof ligands (e.g., ortho-diimine groups) arranged about a core (e.g.,organic core) on an substrate (e.g., electrically conductive and/oroptically transparent substrate). In some embodiments, the MOF may bedeposited on the substrate, such that the MOF is in direct physicalcontact with the substrate. In other embodiments, the MOF may not be indirect physical contact with the substrate. In some embodiments, theplurality of metal ions may be selected based on their ability tointeract with the target analyte. In certain embodiments, substantiallythe same ligands may be used with different metal ions to detect avariety of target analytes.

In general, MOF chemical sensors may be used to detect a target analytein or contained in a material in any phase. For example, the targetanalyte may be in or carried in a material in the liquid and/vaporphase. In some such embodiments, a MOF chemical sensing device isexposed to the liquid and/or vapor comprising the target analyte. Thetarget analyte may interact with, e.g., one or more metal ions in theMOF. The interaction between the metal ion and target analyte maydetectably alter one or more chemical and/or physical property of theMOF. Any suitable detector may be used to detect a physical and/orchemical change of the MOF due to interaction with the target analyte.In some embodiments, the detection of the target analyte(s) may be basedon an electrochemical or resistance measurement using, e.g., apotentiostat. Those of ordinary skill in the art would be knowledgeableof suitable detectors. In some embodiments, the target analyte isammonia. Other non-limiting examples of target analytes include O₂(e.g., for combustion monitoring, safety), CO₂ (e.g., for safety,property management, produce monitoring). CO (e.g., for safety), oxidesof nitrogen (e.g., for safety, environmental monitoring), water (e.g.,for monitoring), amines (e.g., for safety), N-heterocycles (e.g., forsafety), alcohols (e.g., breath analysis), ketones (e.g., for breathanalysis, explosives detection), aldehydes (e.g., for indoor airquality), ethers (e.g., for safety), aromatics (e.g., for safety),nitriles (e.g., for safety), phosphonates (e.g., for chemical warfareagents), hydrocarbons (e.g., olefins such as ethylene for producemonitoring and food industry).

In some embodiments, the MOFs are conductive. Those of ordinary skill inthe art will be aware of methods to determine the conductivity of anMOF. For example, as described in the examples, the electricalconductivity of an MOF may be measured in polycrystalline pellet formand/or in polycrystalline film form. In some cases, a pellet of an MOFmay be compressed between two steel rods and subjected to a two-probedirect current measurement. In some embodiments, the conductivity of aMOF in pellet form is at least about 1 S·cm⁻¹, or at least about 1.5S·cm⁻¹, or at least about 2 S·cm⁻¹, or at least about 2.5 S·cm⁻¹, orbetween about 1 S·cm⁻¹ and about 10 S·cm⁻¹, or between about 1 S·cm⁻¹and about 7 S·cm⁻¹, or between about 1 S·cm⁻¹ and about 5 S·cm⁻¹, orbetween about 2 S·cm⁻¹ and about 10 S·cm⁻¹, or between about 2 S·cm⁻¹and about 7 S·cm⁻¹, or between about 2 S·cm⁻¹ and about 5 S·cm⁻¹.

In some embodiments, the conductivity of an MOF in film having anaverage thickness of about 500 nm is at least about 10 S·cm⁻¹, at leastabout 15 S·cm⁻¹, or at least about 20 S·cm⁻¹, or at least about 25S·cm⁻¹, or at least about 30 S·cm⁻¹, or at least about 35 S·cm⁻¹, or atleast about 40 S·cm⁻¹, or between about 1 S·cm⁻¹ and about 100 S·cm⁻¹,or between about 1 S·cm⁻¹ and about 90 S·cm⁻¹, or between about 1 S·cm⁻¹and about 80 S·cm⁻¹, or between about 1 S·cm⁻¹ and about 70 S·cm⁻¹, orbetween about 1 S·cm⁻¹ and about 60 S·cm⁻¹, or between about 1 S·cm⁻¹and about 50 S·cm⁻¹, or between about 1 S·cm⁻¹ and about 40 S·cm⁻¹, orbetween about 1 S·cm⁻¹ and about 30 S·cm⁻¹, or between about 1 S·cm⁻¹and about 20 S·cm⁻¹, or between about 1 S·cm⁻¹ and about 10 S·cm⁻¹, orbetween about 1 S·cm⁻¹ and about 7 S·cm⁻¹, or between about 1 S·cm⁻¹ andabout 5 S·cm⁻¹, or between about 2 S·cm⁻¹ and about 10 S·cm⁻¹, orbetween about 2 S·cm⁻¹ and about 7 S·cm⁻¹, or between about 2 S·cm⁻¹ andabout 5 S·cm⁻¹. Other ranges are possible. In some cases, theconductivity is measured at room temperature (e.g., about 25° C.). Insome cases, the conductivity may have a linear dependence withtemperature.

In some embodiments, the bandgap of the MOF may be varied, e.g., bychanging the substituents about the ligand core. Those of ordinary skillin the art will be aware of methods to determine the bandgap of amaterial, for example, optically or through analytical techniques suchas UV photoelectron spectroscopy. In some embodiments, the bandgap of anMOF is between about ˜0.3 eV and about ˜2.0 eV. Other ranges arepossible.

In some embodiments, the charge mobility of the MOF may be varied, e.g.,by changing the substituents about the ligand core. Those of ordinaryskill in the art will be aware of methods to determine the chargemobility of a material, for example, via a field-effect transistor, Hallmeasurement, and/or a time-of-flight technique. In some embodiments, thecharge mobility is least about 0.1 cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or at least about 0.5cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or at least about 1 cm²·V·⁻¹·s⁻¹, or at least about 2cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or at least about 3 cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or at least about 4cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or between about 0.1 and about 30 cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or betweenabout 0.1 and about 20 cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or between about 0.1 and about 10cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or between about 0.1 and about 5 cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or betweenabout 1 and about 1000 cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or between about 1 and about 500cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or between about 1 and about 250 cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or betweenabout 1 and about 100 cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or between about 1 and about 75cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or between about 1 and about 50 cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or betweenabout 1 and about 30 cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or between about 1 and about 20cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or between about 1 and about 10 cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or betweenabout 1 and about 5 cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or between about 2 and about 30cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or between about 2 and about 20 cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or betweenabout 2 and about 10 cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹, or between about 2 and about 5cm²·V⁻¹·s⁻¹. In some embodiments, the charge mobility may be determinedusing an MOF formed as a single sheet with little or no defects.

In some embodiments in which the MOFs are conductive, the MOFs may beused in an electrochemical capacitor. For instance, in some embodiments,a MOF, described herein, comprising a metal ion (e.g., Ni) may be usedas an active material in one or more electrodes of an electrochemicalcapacitor (e.g., electric double layer supercapacitor, pseudocapacitancesupercapacitor). In some such embodiments, the electrochemicalcapacitors (e.g., supercapacitor) may comprise two electrodes separatedby a porous separator (e.g., membrane, fibrous material), and anelectrolyte. At least one electrode (e.g., two electrodes) may compriseone or more MOFs. In some instances, the active material in one or moreelectrodes (e.g., two electrodes) may consist essentially of one or moreMOFs. In other instances, the electrode may comprise other activematerial in addition to one or more MOFs.

As used herein, a supercapacitor has its ordinary meaning in the art andmay refer to a capacitor whose active material has a gravimetriccapacitance at least 10 F·g⁻¹, minimum operating voltage of 1 V, andretains 85% of its capacitance for at least 1,000 cycles.

In some embodiments, an electrochemical capacitor comprising one or moreMOFs may have a relatively high gravimetric capacitance. For instance,in such an electrochemical capacitor one or more electrodes may have aspecific capacitance of at least about 50 F·g⁻¹ (e.g., at least about 70F·g⁻¹, at least about 100 F·g⁻¹, at least about 150 F·g⁻¹, at leastabout 200 F·g⁻¹) at operating voltage 2 V and current density 1 F·g⁻¹.

In some instances, the capacitance may be between about 50 F·g⁻¹ andabout 250 F·g⁻¹, between about 70 F·g⁻¹ and about 250 F·g⁻¹, betweenabout 100 F·g⁻¹ and about 250 F·g⁻¹, between about 100 F·g⁻¹ and about160 F·g⁻¹, between about 50 F·g⁻¹ and about 160 F·g⁻¹, between about 70F·g⁻¹ and about 150 F·g⁻¹, or between about 50 F·g⁻¹ and about 100F·g⁻¹.

In some embodiment, an electrochemical capacitor comprising one or moreMOFs may have a relatively low time constant. For instance, the timeconstant may be less than or equal to about 10 seconds, less than orequal to about 8 seconds, less than or equal to about 5 seconds, or lessthan or equal to about 3 seconds. In some instances, the time constantmay be between about 0.5 seconds and about 10 seconds, between about 0.5seconds and about 8 seconds, between about 0.5 seconds and about 5seconds, or between about 0.5 seconds and about 3 seconds. One ofordinary skill in the art would be knowledgeable of methods to determinethe time constant. The time constant may be determined usingelectrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Briefly, from theelectrochemical impedance data, the imaginary capacitance may bedetermined as a function of frequency. The reciprocal of the frequencyf₀ of a local maximum in the data yields a time constant. Theelectrochemical impedance may be determined at 22° C. in 1.5M tetraethylammonium tetra-fluoroborate (TEABF₄) in acetonitrile electrolytesolution having a density of 0.89 g/cm³. The current collector may havegood contact with the electrodes during the measurement. In someinstances, a 25 micron thick gold foil current collector is used.

In some embodiments, the electrochemical capacitor comprising one ormore MOFs may have a relatively high capacitance retention percentageover a relatively large number of cycles. For instance, theelectrochemical capacitor may have a capacitance retention percentage ofat least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at leastabout 90%, at least about 92%, or at least about 95% after at least1,000 cycles (e.g., 5,000 cycles, 10,000 cycles, 20,000 cycles) atconstant current of 2 A·g⁻¹ charge and discharge from 0 V to 2 V.

In some embodiments, the electrochemical capacitor comprising one ormore MOFs may have a relatively low equivalent series resistance. Forinstance, the equivalent series resistance be less than or equal toabout 3Ω, less than or equal to about 2Ω, less than or equal to about1Ω, less than or equal to about 0.5Ω, or less than or equal to about0.1Ω. In some instances, the equivalent series resistance may be betweenabout 0.1Ω and about 3Ω, between about 0.1Ω and about 2Ω, between about0.5Ω and about 1, between about 0.1Ω and about 1Ω, or between about 0.1Ωand about 0.5Ω. One of ordinary skill in the art would be knowledgeableof methods to determine the equivalent series resistance. Briefly, theequivalent series resistance may be determined from the potential dropat the beginning of a constant current charge or discharge. Theequivalent series resistance may be determined from the fittingelectrochemical impedance data to the model equivalent circuit.

Definitions

For convenience, certain terms employed in the specification, examples,and appended claims are listed here.

As used herein, the term “reacting” refers to the forming of a bondbetween two or more components to produce a stable, isolable compound.For example, a first component and a second component may react to formone reaction product comprising the first component and the secondcomponent joined by a covalent bond. That is, the term “reacting” doesnot refer to the interaction of solvents, catalysts, bases, ligands, orother materials which may serve to promote the occurrence of thereaction with the component(s).

Definitions of specific functional groups and chemical terms aredescribed in more detail below. For purposes of this invention, thechemical elements are identified in accordance with the Periodic Tableof the Elements, CAS version, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 75^(th)Ed., inside cover, and specific functional groups are generally definedas described therein. Additionally, general principles of organicchemistry, as well as specific functional moieties and reactivity, aredescribed in Organic Chemistry, Thomas Sorrell, University ScienceBooks, Sausalito: 1999, the entire contents of which are incorporatedherein by reference.

The term “aliphatic,” as used herein, includes both saturated andunsaturated, nonaromatic, straight chain (i.e., unbranched), branched,acyclic, and cyclic (i.e., carbocyclic) hydrocarbons, which areoptionally substituted with one or more functional groups. As will beappreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art, “aliphatic” is intendedherein to include, but is not limited to, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, and cycloalkynyl moieties. Thus, as usedherein, the term “alkyl” includes straight, branched and cyclic alkylgroups. An analogous convention applies to other generic terms such as“alkenyl”, “alkynyl”, and the like. Furthermore, as used herein, theterms “alkyl”, “alkenyl”, “alkynyl”, and the like encompass bothsubstituted and unsubstituted groups. In certain embodiments, as usedherein, “aliphatic” is used to indicate those aliphatic groups (cyclic,acyclic, substituted, unsubstituted, branched or unbranched) having 1-20carbon atoms. Aliphatic group substituents include, but are not limitedto, any of the substituents described herein, that result in theformation of a stable moiety (e.g., aliphatic, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,heteroaliphatic, heterocyclic, aryl, heteroaryl, acyl, oxo, imino,thiooxo, cyano, isocyano, amino, azido, nitro, hydroxyl, thiol, halo,aliphaticamino, heteroaliphaticamino, alkylamino, heteroalkylamino,arylamino, heteroarylamino, alkylaryl, arylalkyl, aliphaticoxy,heteroaliphaticoxy, alkyloxy, heteroalkyloxy, aryloxy, heteroaryloxy,aliphaticthioxy, heteroaliphaticthioxy, alkylthioxy, heteroalkylthioxy,arylthioxy, heteroarylthioxy, acyloxy, and the like, each of which mayor may not be further substituted).

As used herein, the term “alkyl” is given its ordinary meaning in theart and refers to the radical of saturated aliphatic groups, includingstraight-chain alkyl groups, branched-chain alkyl groups, cycloalkyl(alicyclic) groups, alkyl substituted cycloalkyl groups, and cycloalkylsubstituted alkyl groups. In some cases, the alkyl group may be a loweralkyl group, i.e., an alkyl group having 1 to 10 carbon atoms (e.g.,methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, ordecyl). In some embodiments, a straight chain or branched chain alkylmay have 30 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone, and, in some cases,20 or fewer. In some embodiments, a straight chain or branched chainalkyl may have 12 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone (e.g., C₁-C₁₂for straight chain, C₃-C₁₂ for branched chain), 6 or fewer, or 4 orfewer. Likewise, cycloalkyls may have from 3-10 carbon atoms in theirring structure, or 5, 6 or 7 carbons in the ring structure. Examples ofalkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, propyl,isopropyl, cyclopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, t-butyl, cyclobutyl, hexyl, andcyclochexyl.

The term “alkylene” as used herein refers to a bivalent alkyl group. An“alkylene” group is a polymethylene group, i.e., —(CH₂)₂—, wherein z isa positive integer, e.g., from 1 to 20, from 1 to 10, from 1 to 6, from1 to 4, from 1 to 3, from 1 to 2, or from 2 to 3. A substituted alkylenechain is a polymethylene group in which one or more methylene hydrogenatoms are replaced with a substituent. Suitable substituents includethose described herein for a substituted aliphatic group.

Generally, the suffix “-ene” is used to describe a bivalent group. Thus,any of the terms defined herein can be modified with the suffix “-ene”to describe a bivalent version of that moiety. For example, a bivalentcarbocycle is “carbocyclylene”, a bivalent aryl ring is “arylene”, abivalent benzene ring is “phenylene”, a bivalent heterocycle is“heterocyclylene”, a bivalent heteroaryl ring is “heteroarylene”, abivalent alkyl chain is “alkylene”, a bivalent alkenyl chain is“alkenylene”, a bivalent alkynyl chain is “alkynylene”, a bivalentheteroalkyl chain is “heteroalkylene”, a bivalent heteroalkenyl chain is“heteroalkenylene”, a bivalent heteroalkynyl chain is“heteroalkynylene”, and so forth.

The terms “alkenyl” and “alkynyl” are given their ordinary meaning inthe art and refer to unsaturated aliphatic groups analogous in lengthand possible substitution to the alkyls described above, but thatcontain at least one double or triple bond respectively.

In certain embodiments, the alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl groups employedin the invention contain 1-20 aliphatic carbon atoms. In certain otherembodiments, the alkyl, alkenyl, and alkynyl groups employed in theinvention contain 1-10 aliphatic carbon atoms. In yet other embodiments,the alkyl, alkenyl, and alkynyl groups employed in the invention contain1-8 aliphatic carbon atoms. In still other embodiments, the alkyl,alkenyl, and alkynyl groups employed in the invention contain 1-6aliphatic carbon atoms. In yet other embodiments, the alkyl, alkenyl,and alkynyl groups employed in the invention contain 1-4 carbon atoms.Illustrative aliphatic groups thus include, but are not limited to, forexample, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, allyl, n-butyl, sec-butyl,isobutyl, t-butyl, n-pentyl, sec-pentyl, isopentyl, t-pentyl, n-hexyl,sec-hexyl, moieties and the like, which again, may bear one or moresubstituents. Alkenyl groups include, but are not limited to, forexample, ethenyl, propenyl, butenyl, 1-methyl-2-buten-1-yl, and thelike. Representative alkynyl groups include, but are not limited to,ethynyl, 2-propynyl (propargyl), 1-propynyl and the like.

The term “cycloalkyl,” as used herein, refers specifically to groupshaving three to ten, preferably three to seven carbon atoms. Suitablecycloalkyls include, but are not limited to cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl,cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl and the like, which, as in the caseof other aliphatic, heteroaliphatic, or hetercyclic moieties, mayoptionally be substituted with substituents including, but not limitedto aliphatic; heteroaliphatic; aryl; heteroaryl; arylalkyl;heteroarylalkyl; alkoxy; aryloxy; heteroalkoxy; heteroaryloxy;alkylthio; arylthio; heteroalkylthio; heteroarylthio; —F; —Cl; —Br; —I;—OH; —NO₂; —CN; —CF₃; —CH₂CF₃; —CHCl₂; —CH₂OH; —CH₂CH₂OH; —CH₂NH₂;—CH₂SO₂CH₃; —C(O)R_(x); —CO₂(R_(x)); —CON(R_(x))₂; —OC(O)R_(x);—OCO₂R_(x); —OCON(R_(x))₂; —N(R_(x))₂; —S(O)₂R; —NR_(x)(CO)R_(x),wherein each occurrence of R_(x) independently includes, but is notlimited to, aliphatic, heteroaliphatic, aryl, heteroaryl, arylalkyl, orheteroarylalkyl, wherein any of the aliphatic, heteroaliphatic,arylalkyl, or heteroarylalkyl substituents described above and hereinmay be substituted or unsubstituted, branched or unbranched, cyclic oracyclic, and wherein any of the aryl or heteroaryl substituentsdescribed above and herein may be substituted or unsubstituted.Additional examples of generally applicable substituents are illustratedby the specific embodiments shown in the Examples that are describedherein.

The term “heteroaliphatic,” as used herein, refers to an aliphaticmoiety, as defined herein, which includes both saturated andunsaturated, nonaromatic, straight chain (i.e., unbranched), branched,acyclic, cyclic (i.e., heterocyclic), or polycyclic hydrocarbons, whichare optionally substituted with one or more functional groups, and thatcontain one or more oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, or siliconatoms, e.g., in place of carbon atoms. In certain embodiments,heteroaliphatic moieties are substituted by independent replacement ofone or more of the hydrogen atoms thereon with one or more substituents.As will be appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art,“heteroaliphatic” is intended herein to include, but is not limited to,heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, heterocycloalkyl,heterocycloalkenyl, and heterocycloalkynyl moieties. Thus, the term“heteroaliphatic” includes the terms “heteroalkyl,” “heteroalkenyl”,“heteroalkynyl”, and the like. Furthermore, as used herein, the terms“heteroalkyl”, “heteroalkenyl”, “heteroalkynyl”, and the like encompassboth substituted and unsubstituted groups. In certain embodiments, asused herein, “heteroaliphatic” is used to indicate those heteroaliphaticgroups (cyclic, acyclic, substituted, unsubstituted, branched orunbranched) having 1-20 carbon atoms. Heteroaliphatic group substituentsinclude, but are not limited to, any of the substituents describedherein, that result in the formation of a stable moiety (e.g.,aliphatic, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroaliphatic, heterocyclic, aryl,heteroaryl, acyl, sulfinyl, sulfonyl, oxo, imino, thiooxo, cyano,isocyano, amino, azido, nitro, hydroxyl, thiol, halo, aliphaticamino,heteroaliphaticamino, alkylamino, heteroalkylamino, arylamino,heteroarylamino, alkylaryl, arylalkyl, aliphaticoxy, heteroaliphaticoxy,alkyloxy, heteroalkyloxy, aryloxy, heteroaryloxy, aliphaticthioxy,heteroaliphaticthioxy, alkylthioxy, heteroalkylthioxy, arylthioxy,heteroarylthioxy, acyloxy, and the like, each of which may or may not befurther substituted).

The term “heteroalkyl” is given its ordinary meaning in the art andrefers to an alkyl group as described herein in which one or more carbonatoms is replaced by a heteroatom. Suitable heteroatoms include oxygen,sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, and the like. Examples of heteroalkylgroups include, but are not limited to, alkoxy, alkoxyalkyl, amino,thioester, poly(ethylene glycol), and alkyl-substituted amino.

The terms “heteroalkenyl” and “heteroalkynyl” are given their ordinarymeaning in the art and refer to unsaturated aliphatic groups analogousin length and possible substitution to the heteroalkyls described above,but that contain at least one double or triple bond respectively.

Some examples of substituents of the above-described aliphatic (andother) moieties of compounds of the invention include, but are notlimited to aliphatic; heteroaliphatic; aryl; heteroaryl; alkylaryl;alkylheteroaryl; alkoxy; aryloxy; heteroalkoxy; heteroaryloxy;alkylthio; arylthio; heteroalkylthio; heteroarylthio; F; Cl; Br; I; —OH;—NO₂; —CN; —CF₃; —CHF₂; —CH₂F; —CH₂CF₃; —CHCl₂; —CH₂OH; —CH₂CH₂OH;—CH₂NH₂; —CH₂SO₂CH₃; —C(O)R_(x); —CO₂(R_(x)); —CON(R_(x))₂; —OC(O)R_(x);—OCO₂R_(x); —OCON(R_(x))₂; —N(R_(x))₂; —S(O)₂R_(x); —NR_(x)(CO)R_(x)wherein each occurrence of R_(x) independently includes, but is notlimited to, aliphatic, alycyclic, heteroaliphatic, heterocyclic, aryl,heteroaryl, alkylaryl, or alkylheteroaryl, wherein any of the aliphatic,heteroaliphatic, alkylaryl, or alkylheteroaryl substituents describedabove and herein may be substituted or unsubstituted, branched orunbranched, cyclic or acyclic, and wherein any of the aryl or heteroarylsubstituents described above and herein may be substituted orunsubstituted. Additional examples of generally applicable substituentsare illustrated by the specific embodiments shown in the Examples thatare described herein.

The term “aryl” is given its ordinary meaning in the art and refers toaromatic carbocyclic groups, optionally substituted, having a singlering (e.g., phenyl), multiple rings (e.g., biphenyl), or multiple fusedrings in which at least one is aromatic (e.g.,1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthyl, naphthyl, anthryl, or phenanthryl). That is,at least one ring may have a conjugated pi electron system, while other,adjoining rings can be cycloalkyls, cycloalkenyls, cycloalkynyls, arylsand/or heterocyclyls. The aryl group may be optionally substituted, asdescribed herein. Substituents include, but are not limited to, any ofthe previously mentioned substituents, i.e., the substituents recitedfor aliphatic moieties, or for other moieties as disclosed herein,resulting in the formation of a stable compound. In some cases, an arylgroup is a stable mono- or polycyclic unsaturated moiety havingpreferably 3-14 carbon atoms, each of which may be substituted orunsubstituted. “Carbocyclic aryl groups” refer to aryl groups whereinthe ring atoms on the aromatic ring are carbon atoms. Carbocyclic arylgroups include monocyclic carbocyclic aryl groups and polycyclic orfused compounds (e.g., two or more adjacent ring atoms are common to twoadjoining rings) such as naphthyl groups.

The terms “heteroaryl” is given its ordinary meaning in the art andrefers to aryl groups comprising at least one heteroatom as a ring atom.A “heteroaryl” is a stable heterocyclic or polyheterocyclic unsaturatedmoiety having preferably 3-14 carbon atoms, each of which may besubstituted or unsubstituted. Substituents include, but are not limitedto, any of the previously mentioned substituents, i.e., the substitutesrecited for aliphatic moieties, or for other moieties as disclosedherein, resulting in the formation of a stable compound. In some cases,a heteroaryl is a cyclic aromatic radical having from five to ten ringatoms of which one ring atom is selected from S. O, and N; zero, one, ortwo ring atoms are additional heteroatoms independently selected from S,O, and N; and the remaining ring atoms are carbon, the radical beingjoined to the rest of the molecule via any of the ring atoms, such as,for example, pyridyl, pyrazinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrrolyl, pyrazolyl,imidazolyl, thiazolyl, oxazolyl, isooxazolyl, thiadiazolyl, oxadiazolyl,thiophenyl, furanyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, and the like.

It will also be appreciated that aryl and heteroaryl moieties, asdefined herein may be attached via an alkyl or heteroalkyl moiety andthus also include -(alkyl)aryl, -(heteroalkyl)aryl,-(heteroalkyl)heteroaryl, and -(heteroalkyl)heteroaryl moieties. Thus,as used herein, the phrases “aryl or heteroaryl moieties” and “aryl,heteroaryl, -(alkyl)aryl, -(heteroalkyl)aryl, -(heteroalkyl)heteroaryl,and -(heteroalkyl)heteroaryl” are interchangeable. Substituents include,but are not limited to, any of the previously mentioned substituents,i.e., the substituents recited for aliphatic moieties, or for othermoieties as disclosed herein, resulting in the formation of a stablecompound.

It will be appreciated that aryl and heteroaryl groups (includingbicyclic aryl groups) can be unsubstituted or substituted, whereinsubstitution includes replacement of one or more of the hydrogen atomsthereon independently with any one or more of the following moietiesincluding, but not limited to: aliphatic alicyclic; heteroaliphatic;heterocyclic; aromatic; heteroaromatic; aryl; heteroaryl; alkylaryl;heteroalkylaryl; alkylheteroaryl; heteroalkylheteroaryl; alkoxy;aryloxy; heteroalkoxy; heteroaryloxy; alkylthio; arylthio;heteroalkylthio; heteroarylthio; F, Cl; Br; I; —OH; —NO₂; —CN; —CF₃;—CH₂F; —CHF₂; —CH₂CF₃; —CHCl₂; —CH₂OH; —CH₂CH₂OH; —CH₂NH₂; —CH₂SO₂CH₃;—C(O)R_(x); —CO₂(R_(x)); —CON(R_(x))₂; —OC(O)R_(x); —OCO₂R_(x);—OCON(R_(x))₂; —N(R_(x))₂; —S(O)R_(x); —S(O)₂R_(x); —NR_(x)(CO)R_(x)wherein each occurrence of R, independently includes, but is not limitedto, aliphatic, alicyclic, heteroaliphatic, heterocyclic, aromatic,heteroaromatic, aryl, heteroaryl, alkylaryl, alkylheteroaryl,heteroalkylaryl or heteroalkylheteroaryl, wherein any of the aliphatic,alicyclic, heteroaliphatic, heterocyclic, alkylaryl, or alkylheteroarylsubstituents described above and herein may be substituted orunsubstituted, branched or unbranched, saturated or unsaturated, andwherein any of the aromatic, heteroaromatic, aryl, heteroaryl,-(alkyl)aryl or -(alkyl)heteroaryl substituents described above andherein may be substituted or unsubstituted. Additionally, it will beappreciated, that any two adjacent groups taken together may represent a4, 5, 6, or 7-membered substituted or unsubstituted alicyclic orheterocyclic moiety. Additional examples of generally applicablesubstituents are illustrated by the specific embodiments describedherein.

The terms “halo” and “halogen” as used herein refer to an atom selectedfrom the group consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine.

It will be appreciated that the above groups and/or compounds, asdescribed herein, may be optionally substituted with any number ofsubstituents or functional moieties. That is, any of the above groupsmay be optionally substituted. As used herein, the term “substituted” iscontemplated to include all permissible substituents of organiccompounds, “permissible” being in the context of the chemical rules ofvalence known to those of ordinary skill in the art. In general, theterm “substituted” whether preceded by the term “optionally” or not, andsubstituents contained in formulas of this invention, refer to thereplacement of hydrogen radicals in a given structure with the radicalof a specified substituent. When more than one position in any givenstructure may be substituted with more than one substituent selectedfrom a specified group, the substituent may be either the same ordifferent at every position. It will be understood that “substituted”also includes that the substitution results in a stable compound, e.g.,which does not spontaneously undergo transformation such as byrearrangement, cyclization, elimination, etc. In some cases,“substituted” may generally refer to replacement of a hydrogen with asubstituent as described herein. However, “substituted,” as used herein,does not encompass replacement and/or alteration of a key functionalgroup by which a molecule is identified, e.g., such that the“substituted” functional group becomes, through substitution, adifferent functional group. For example, a “substituted phenyl group”must still comprise the phenyl moiety and cannot be modified bysubstitution, in this definition, to become, e.g., a pyridine ring. In abroad aspect, the permissible substituents include acyclic and cyclic,branched and unbranched, carbocyclic and heterocyclic, aromatic andnonaromatic substituents of organic compounds. Illustrative substituentsinclude, for example, those described herein. The permissiblesubstituents can be one or more and the same or different forappropriate organic compounds. For purposes of this invention, theheteroatoms such as nitrogen may have hydrogen substituents and/or anypermissible substituents of organic compounds described herein whichsatisfy the valencies of the heteroatoms.

Furthermore, this invention is not intended to be limited in any mannerby the permissible substituents of organic compounds. The term “stable,”as used herein, preferably refers to compounds which possess stabilitysufficient to allow manufacture and which maintain the integrity of thecompound for a sufficient period of time to be detected and preferablyfor a sufficient period of time to be useful for the purposes detailedherein.

Examples of substituents include, but are not limited to, halogen,azide, alkyl, aralkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, hydroxyl, alkoxyl,amino, nitro, sulfhydryl imino, amido, phosphonate, phosphinate,carbonyl, carboxyl, silyl, ether, alkylthio, sulfonyl, sulfonamido,ketone, aldehyde, ester, heterocyclyl, aromatic or heteroaromaticmoieties, —CF₃, —CN, aryl, aryloxy, perhaloalkoxy, aralkoxy, heteroaryl,heteroaryloxy, heteroarylalkyl, heteroaralkoxy, azido, amino, halide,alkylthio, oxo, acylalkyl, carboxy esters, -carboxamido, acyloxy,aminoalkyl, alkylaminoaryl, alkylaryl, alkylaminoalkyl, alkoxyaryl,arylamino, aralkylamino, alkylsulfonyl, -carboxamidoalkylaryl,-carboxamidoaryl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, alkylaminoalkylcarboxy-,aminocarboxamidoalkyl-, cyano, alkoxyalkyl, perhaloalkyl,arylalkyloxyalkyl, and the like.

The following examples are intended to illustrate certain embodiments ofthe present invention, but do not exemplify the full scope of theinvention.

EXAMPLES Working Example 1

This example describes the preparation and use of two-dimensional (2D)electronic hybrid organic-inorganic materials (e.g., MOFs) that areconnected through square-planar metal-bis(ortho-phenylenediimine) units(FIG. 1). These materials conduct electricity and may be used in thesemiconductor, chemical, and electronics industries, including inapplications such as electrochemical sensors, electrocatalysts, andvarious electronic devices such as light-emitting diodes, photovoltaicsolar cells, and transistors. The MOFs are built from molecularprecursors and comprise of organic ligands that contain at least twoortho-phenylenediimine units, and metal ions that connect the organicligands by binding to the nitrogen atoms of the phenylenediiminemoieties. The molecular building blocks may be changed by syntheticmanipulations or by changing the metal precursor, therefore, thematerials described in this example have variable (tunable) electricalconductivity and/or bandgap that are desirable for the applicationslisted above.

In FIG. 1: The metal (M)-bis(ortho-diimine) unit that connects theorganic ligands in the materials described in this example. The squigglybonds indicate connection to the extended material.

In the methods described in this example, MOFs are synthesized by thereaction of organic ligands containing at least twoortho-phenylenediamine groups with metal salts. During the course of thereaction, the organic ligands are oxidized and eachortho-phenylenediamine groups are transformed intoortho-phenylenediimine groups, which bind to the metal ion. Oxidation ofthe ortho-diamine groups and formation of the ortho-diimine groups aidsin the electrical conductivity of the MOF. Oxidation may be achievedeither with air (O₂), or with chemical oxidants, such as ferricinium,[Fe(C₅H₅)]⁺, or other oxidizers. A base, such as ammonia (or ammoniumhydroxide) may be utilized to deprotonate the diamine and to form theortho-diimine groups in the 2D material.

Synthesis of Ni₃(HITP)₂ (HITP=2,3,6,7,10,11-heaiiminotnphenylene)

(FIG. 2) Reaction between NiCl₂.6H₂O (6.6 mg, 0.028 mmol) in 5 mL ofwater and 0.3 mL of concentrated aqueous ammonia (NH₄OH, 14 mol·L⁻¹) and2,3,6,7,10,11-hexaaminotriphenylene hexahydrochloride (HATP, 10 mg,0.019 mmol) in 5 mL of water produced a black powder and blue-violetfilms of Ni₃(HITP)₂ after stirring at 65° C. for 2 hours under open airin a beaker. The resulting black powder was centrifuged and washed withwater, followed by extensive washing (for 1 hour) with water in anultrasonic bath.

In FIG. 2: Synthesis of Ni₃(HITP)₂, a representative example for thematerials described herein. A second resonance form of Ni₃(HITP)₂,displaying the di-radical nature of the bis-diamine linkages is alsoshown on the right. Dark blue films of Ni₃(HITP)₂ were obtained onquartz, glass, indium-tin oxide coated glass, and silicon wafers, amongothers.

Thermogravimetric analysis of Ni₃(HITP)₂ (FIG. 3) showed that thematerial lost some guest water molecules and was be dried by heating attemperature between 100 and 300° C. Thermal decomposition occurred above˜300° C.

A UV-vis spectrum of Ni₃(HITP)₂ (FIG. 3) showed electronic transitionsin the near-IR, indicative of extended conjugation, as is common fororganic conducting polymers. In FIG. 3: UV-Vis-NIR absorption of aNi₃(HITP)₂ film on quartz slide.

X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS) of Ni₃(HITP)₂ showed that a singletype of Ni atoms and a single type of N atoms were present in thesample, evidencing that Ni₃(HITP)₂ was neutral, not charged and that noadditional cations, anions, or metallic species (e.g. Ni metal) werepresent in the sample other than the Ni and N atoms pertaining to theNi-bis(ortho-phenylenediimine) units and the organic ligands.

Films of Ni₃(HITP)₂ were grown on quartz and other surfaces. Scanningelectron micrographs (SEMs) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) images ofrepresentative films grown on quartz are shown in FIG. 4. In FIG. 4:SEMs for films of Ni₃(HITP)₂ at various magnifications (top). AFMthickness profile and corresponding 3D AFM image of a representativeNi₃(HITP)₂ film (bottom).

Ni₃(HITP)₂ exhibited a sheet (layered) structure, where conjugationoccurs in the plane, and sheets were arranged in a shifted-parallelalignment, as shown in FIG. 5. FIG. 5 also shows powder X-raydiffraction data where experimental results matched the proposed layeredstructure. In FIG. 5: Experimental and simulated PXRD patterns ofNi₃(HITP)₂. The inset shows the slipped-parallel structure withneighboring sheets displaced by 1/16 fractional coordinates in the a andb directions.

The electrical conductivity of Ni₃(HITP)₂ was measured inpolycrystalline pellet form and in polycrystalline film form. A pelletof this material compressed between two steel rods and subjected to atwo-probe direct current measurement revealed a conductivity of 2S·cm⁻¹. A van der Pauw conductivity measurement measured for a 500 nmthick film of Ni₃(HITP)₂ deposited on a quartz substrate revealed aconductivity of 40 S·cm⁻¹. The film conductivity had a linear dependencewith temperature.

Prophetic Example 1

The approach of using metal bis(ortho-phenylenediimine) units for theconstruction of electrically conducting hybrid organic-inorganicmaterials as described in working Example 1 may be modified to include,for example:

a) The use of any aromatic organic molecule that contains at least twoortho-diamine units that may be arranged in any geometry around theorganic core. The diamine unit, in contact with an oxidant, a base, andwith a metal ion may produce the metal bis(ortho-diimine) unit.Non-limiting organic ligands include ligands with linear geometry (e.g.,2,3,6,7-tetraaminonaphthalene, 1,2,4,5-tetraaminobenzene), trigonalgeometry (e.g., HATP and extensions thereof with fused benzene ringsthat may or might not contain heteroatoms such as N), and squaregeometry (e.g., octaamino-phthalocyanine, and its linearly extendedcongeners with additional fused benzene rings that may or might notcontain heteroatoms such as N);

b) The use of other organic ligands that contain at least twoortho-diamine units and any combination of benzene rings andheterocyclic rings as the ligand core (e.g., thiophene, carbazole,pyrole, indole, furan);

c) The use of organic ligands including other functional groups thatgenerally do not bind a metal (e.g., —NO₂, —R; R=alkyl; —Ar; Ar=aryl,—F, —Br, —I, —CN, —SO₃H, —OH, —SH, —NC, —POH, —CF₃, —NH₂). Thesefunctional groups may be used to modulate the electronic properties ofthe ligand, and therefore the electrical properties of the ensuing MOFs;

d) The use of other divalent metal ions including, but not limited to,Mg²⁺. Mn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Pd²⁺, Pt²⁺, Ru²⁺, Cd²⁺, Zn²⁺, Pb²⁺,Hg²⁺, V²⁺, and Cr²⁺;

e) The use monovalent ions including, but not limited to, Ag⁺, Cu⁺, andAu⁺;

f) The use of trivalent ions including, but not limited to, Fe³⁺, V³⁺.Ti³⁺, Sc³⁺, Al³⁺, In³⁺, Ga³⁺, Mn³⁺, Co³⁺, and Cr³⁺;

g) The use of any salts of the metal cations in the synthesis (e.g., F⁻,Br⁻, I⁻, NO₃ ⁻, SO₄ ²⁻, ClO₄ ⁻, other oxoanions);

h) The use of any oxidants that may substitute air or O₂ (e.g.,ferricinium, nitrosonium, Ag²⁺, Ag⁺, other chemical oxidants); and/or

i) The use of any bases that may substitute NH₃ (e.g., NH₄OH).

Working Example 2

The following example provides additional details regarding thematerials and synthesize of the MOFs prepared in Working Example 1.

Materials:

Starting materials were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich or TCI and usedwithout further purification. Tris(Dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0),Pd₂(dba)₃, was purchased from Oakwood Products, Inc. (Fluorochem Ltd.),2,3,6,7,10,11-hexaaminotriphenylene hexahydrochloride, HATP-6HCl, wasprepared according to known procedures. Hexane, diethyl ether, ethylacetate, toluene and silica-gel were purchased from VWR. THF wascollected from an alumina column solvent purification system.

Exemplary synthesis of Ni₃(HITP)₂:

A solution of 6.6 mg (0.028 mmol) of nickel chloride hexahydrate(NiC₂.6H₂O) in 5 mL of water and 0.3 mL of concentrated aqueous ammonia(NH₄OH, 14 mol·L⁻¹) was added to a solution of 10 mg (0.019 mmol) ofHAPT.6HCl in 5 mL of water. This mixture was stirred in an open beakerfor 2 hours at 65° C. The resulting black powder was centrifuged andwashed with water, followed by extensive washing (for 1 hour) with waterin an ultrasonic bath and additional washing by boiling in water for 24hours. The solid was then dried under vacuum at 150° C. C, H, N, and Clmicroelemental analysis for Ni₃(C₁₈H₁₂N₆)₂; Calculated: C: 54.00%; H:3.02%; N: 20.99%; Cl: 0.00%. Found: C: 53.84%; H: 3.12%; N: 20.83%; Cl:<0.02%. A dark blue film was obtained by placing a quartz substrate on aTeflon holder such that it was positioned upside-down inside thereaction vessel. The film growth was thus independent of compacting dueto gravity.

Methods:

Absorption spectra were taken with a CARY 5000 UV-Vis-NIRspectrophotometer.

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed on a TA Instruments Q500Thermogravimetric Analyzer at a heating rate of 0.5° C./min under anitrogen gas flow of 90 mL/min on a platinum pan.

Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) patterns were recorded with a Bruker D8Advance diffractometer equipped with a Göbel mirror, rotating samplestage, LynxEye detector and Cu K_(α) (λ=1.5405 Å) X-ray source in a θ/2θBragg-Brentano geometry. Anti-scattering incident source slit (typically1 mm) and an exchangeable steckblende detector slit (typically 8 mm)were used. The tube voltage and current were 40 kV and 40 mA,respectively. Knife-edge attachments were used to remove scattering atlow angles. Samples for PXRD were prepared by placing a thin layer ofthe designated materials on a zero-background silicon (510) crystalplate.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images were recorded using a LeoSupra 55VP FEG SEM with an operating voltage of 3 keV.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was performed on a ThermoScientific K-Alpha system equipped with an Al source and 180 doublefocusing hemispherical analyzer and 128-channel detector using a 400 μmX-ray spot size.

AFM topography images were acquired using an Asylum MFP-3D AFM system.Images were recorded in tapping mode in the air at room temperature(20-23° C.) using silicon micro cantilevers (OMCL-AC200TS-*3, Olympus).The set point ratio was adjusted to 0.75-0.8 (corresponding to “light”tapping) and the scan rate was set to 0.5 Hz. Imaging was carried out indifferent scan directions and at different scales to verify theconsistency and robustness of the evaluated structures. The thickness offilms was measured by AFM profilometry.

Conductivity measurements on films were performed using the van der Pauwmethod under temperature control with a 4-arm Lakeshore probe stationunder vacuum (ca. 10⁻⁵ torr). Electrical measurement data were obtainedusing a Keithley 2400 source/meter by manually changing the probeconnections. Four silver or carbon paste contacts were put on thecorners of 3×3 mm²-8×8 mm² squares of uniform film separated from therest of the sample.

Powder conductivity were measured using a home-built press as has beendescribed elsewhere.² The powder was pressed between two steel rods of 2mm diameter inside of a glass capillary. The thickness of the powderpellets ranged from 0.1 mm to 0.5 mm.

X-ray absorption measurements were conducted on the Materials ResearchCollaborative Access Team (MR-CAT) beam lines at the Advanced PhotonSource of Argonne National Laboratory. The Ni K edge (8333 eV) wasmeasured on a bending magnet beam line and a spectrum of the elementalfoil was collected alongside sample measurements to calibrate theenergy. A water-cooled, double-crystal Si(111) monochromator was used toselect the photon energies and the experiments were performed intransmission mode with argon, helium, and N₂-filled ionization chambers.Data was collected in six regions (energies relative to the elemental NiK edge): a pre-edge region −250 to −30 eV (10 eV step size, dwell time0.5 s), initial XANES region −30 to −12 eV (5 eV step size, dwell time−0.5 s), XANES region −12 to 30 eV (1 eV step size, dwell time 1 s), aninitial EXAFS region −30 eV to 6 k (0.05 k step size, dwell time 2 s),middle EXAFS region 6 k to 12 k (0.05 k step size, dwell time 4 s), anda final EXAFS region 12 k to 15 k (0.05 k step size, dwell time 8 s).The sample was prepared in an argon glove box and diluted withsufficient boron nitride to acquire an appropriate step height in thespectrum. This mixture was loaded into a 4 mm diameter cylindricalsample holder and kept under argon in a quartz tube capped with Kaptontape during the measurement. The edge energy was associated with themaximum of the first derivative of the XANES spectrum. Athena 0.8.061was used to normalize and calibrate the data and Artemis 0.8.014 tosimulate spectra of model structures determined by density functionaltheory. These simulations represent the sums of all calculatedscattering paths.

Working Example 3

In recent years there has been steadily increasing interest in usingmetal-organic frameworks (MOFs) as next-generation functional materialsin electronic and optoelectronic devices. Due to a combination of highsurface area and robust chemical tunability based on a “bottom-up”synthetic approach, MOFs have been targeted for use in sensors. Anongoing challenge, however, has been a lack of efficient signaltransduction due to the fact that the vast majority of MOFs areinsulators. Accordingly, the utility of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)as functional materials in electronic devices has been limited to dateby a lack of MOFs that display high electrical conductivity. MOFs withhigh intrinsic charge mobility or electrical conductivity would providean opportunity for the development of MOF-based devices. This example,describes the synthesis of a new electrically conductive 2D MOF,Cu₃(HITP)₂ (HITP=2,3,6,7,10,11-hexaiminotriphenylene), which displayed abulk conductivity of 0.2 S·cm⁻¹ (pellet, two-probe). Devices synthesizedby simple drop casting of neat Cu₃(HITP)₂ functioned as reversiblechemiresistive sensors, capable of detecting sub-ppm levels of ammoniavapor. Comparison with the isostructural 2D MOF Ni₃(HITP)₂ revealed thatthe copper sites were critical for ammonia sensing, indicating thatrational synthesis could be used to tune the functional properties ofconductive MOFs.

2D MOFs have the high conductivity values, likely due to in-plane chargedelocalization and extended n-conjugation in the 2D sheets, mediated byelectronic communication through the metal nodes. As described inWorking Example 1, the 2D MOF Ni₃(HITP)₂(HITP=2,3,6,7,10,11-hexaiminotriphenylene) displayed a very highconductivity compared to other microporous MOF reported to date. Theseresults indicated that 2D MOFs with o-phenylenediamine linkages wereattractive materials candidates along with structurally related 2D MOFswith dithiolene or o-semiquinone linkages. Therefore, a family of MOFsbased on the Ni₃(HITP)₂ framework was investigated in order to probe theeffect of structural changes on resulting electronic properties. It washypothesized that through systematic variation of the metal center, theoverall electronic structure of the 2D sheets may be tuned, leading todiverse properties and functionality. In this example, the replacementof the Ni sites in Ni₃(HITP)₂ with Cu which resulted in an isostructural2D MOF that maintained high electrical conductivity. The choice of metalhad a dramatic effect on the response of conductivity to analytes suchas ammonia vapor, highlighting the potential for rational synthetictuning of conductive MOFs to afford desirable properties.

Synthesis of Cu₃(HITP)₂

Synthesis of Cu₃(HITP)₂ was accomplished using similar conditions as forNi₃(HITP)₂: a solution of CuSO₄ in dilute aqueous ammonia was combinedwith 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexaaminotriphenylene hexahydrochloride (HATP.6HC)under air at 23° C., resulting in rapid precipitation of a black solid.After washing with water and acetone, followed by drying under vacuum,Cu₃(HITP)₂ was isolated as a black crystalline solid in 95% yield. Thesynthesis and 2D chemical structure of Cu₃(HITP)₂ is shown in FIG. 6.Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) analysis, shown in FIG. 7, revealed thatCu₃(HITP)₂ was isostructural with Ni₃(HITP)₂, and adopted a hexagonal 2Dstructure with a slipped-parallel stacking of the 2D sheets. FIG. 7shows experimental and simulated PXRD patterns for Cu₃(HITP)₂,displaying a slipped-parallel packing structure of the 2D sheets. Theinset shows a structure of Cu₃(HITP)₂ viewed down the c axis. The unitcell parameters for the simulated structure were a=b=22.3 Å and c=6.6 Å.The broadness of the peak at 2θ=27.8°, corresponding to the [001]reflections, suggested poorer long-rage order along the c direction ascompared to the ab plane, which was typical for layered 2D materials.Conductivity of the bulk material was assessed by two-probe measurementof a pressed pellet, and a room temperature conductivity of 0.2 S·cm⁻¹was obtained. This value was slightly lower than measured for Ni₃(HITP)₂(2 S·cm⁻¹), but was higher than for the majority of conductive MOFsreported to date, including 2D MOFs with dithiolene or o-semiquinonelinkages.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis established thatCu₃(HITP)₂ was a charge-neutral material, as previously observed forNi₃(HITP)₂. After washing with water, no residual SO₄ ²⁻ or Cl⁻ anionswere detected by XPS, and high-resolution scans of the N(1s) regionshowed a single type of N atom, confirming that additional NH₄ ⁺ cationswere also not present. While the chemical structure of Cu(HITP) shown inFIG. 6 was drawn in a closed-shell configuration for simplicity, each ofthe o-phenylenediamine linkages was expected to be oxidized to a radicalanion form, which resulted in a charge-neutral complex with the Cu²⁺centers. Interestingly, a high-resolution XPS spectrum of the Cu(2p)region suggested an inherent mixed-valency of the Cu centers inCu₃(HITP)₂, which contrasts with Ni₃(HITP)₂, for which a single type ofNi atom was observed. The lack of charge balancing counterions indicatedthat any variation from Cu²⁺ was compensated by the redox-active HITPligands; hexaaminotriphenylene derivatives are well known to accommodatea wide range of redox states. While Cu metal formation has been reportedas a potential side reaction in the synthesis of complexes of Cu²⁺ witho-phenylenediamine, control experiments showed that Cu metal was notformed in the synthesis of Cu₃(HITP)₂.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to probe the morphology ofbulk Cu₃(HITP)₂, and revealed sub-micron sized crystallites that packtogether to form a denser polycrystalline material. Films obtained bydrop-casting a suspension of Cu₃(HITP)₂ in acetone onto substrates suchas ITO glass were mechanically robust, and did not separate from thesubstrate upon vigorous washing in an ultrasonic bath. FIG. 8 shows SEMimages at various magnifications for Cu₃(HITP)₂, drop-cast onto an ITOglass slide from a suspension in acetone. The ability to process filmsof conductive MOFs by simple methods such as drop casting is potentiallyvaluable for device manufacturing, as demonstrated in this example forthe fabrication of chemiresistive sensors with Cu₃(HITP)₂.

Reversible Chemiresistive Sensing.

A reversible chemiresistive sensor of ammonia vapor was formed bydrop-casting an acetone suspension of Cu₃(HITP)₂ onto interdigitatedgold electrodes. The Cu₃(HITP)₂ device was encased in a Teflon gas flowchamber, with its electrodes connected to a potentiostat. During ameasurement the device was held at a constant applied potential of 100mV, and the current was monitored while a continuous gas stream waspassed over the device at a constant flow rate, which could be switchedbetween N₂ and an ammonia/N₂ mixture. A stable baseline current wasestablished under N₂ flow, and then a sharp increase in current wasobserved within seconds upon exposure to dilute ammonia vapor. Aschematic of the experimental apparatus used for ammonia sensing isshown in FIG. 9. FIG. 10 is a graph of the relative response of aCu₃(HITP)₂ device to 0.5 ppm, 2 ppm, 5 ppm, and 10 ppm ammonia dilutedwith nitrogen gas (data from two separate devices is overlaid). Thestarting current level was recovered when the ammonia flow was replacedwith pure N₂, and the reversible change in current was observed over >10cycles. Ammonia concentrations of 50.5 ppm were detected even afterexposure to higher concentrations. A concentration of 0.5 ppm was thelowest experimentally accessible concentration of ammonia for ourapparatus. The observed sensitivity toward ammonia vapor was competitivewith values reported for chemiresistive sensors based on pristine carbonnanotubes (CNTs) and conductive polymers such as PEDOT, as well asreported chemical sensors based on transistors fabricated from monolayer2D crystals of MoS₂ grown by chemical vapor deposition (CVD).Furthermore, detection of sub-ppm levels of ammonia was sufficient forair quality monitoring according to EPA guidelines, as well as fortypical agriculture and livestock applications. Within the measuredrange of ammonia concentrations, the change in relative response waslinear, indicating that devices fabricated from Cu₃(HITP)₂ could be usedfor quantitative sensing. FIG. 11 is a graph of the response ofCu(HITP)₂ devices versus ammonia concentration (data from two separatedevices is overlaid). The “turn-on” response to ammonia vapor observedfor Cu₃(HITP)₂ devices was also of interest. In many reportedchemiresistive sensors, such as those based on CNTs and conductivepolymers, ammonia exposure results in decreased conductance due to holequenching. Sensors based on metal chalcogenides, on the other hand,typically exhibit a turn-on response similar to Cu₃(HITP)₂. The datatherefore indicates that Cu₃(HITP)₂ was likely not a hole conductor, andmay find complimentary uses to existing CNT and polymer sensormaterials.

In contrast to the results obtained for Cu₃(HITP)₂, devices fabricatedfrom Ni₃(HITP) did not display any observable response to ammonia vaporexposure under identical experimental conditions. These resultsindicated that rational synthetic variation of conductive MOFs couldhave a direct impact on functionality such as chemiresistive sensing.Recent theoretical studies have described how the identity of the metalcenter is expected to impact the electronic properties of M₃(HITP)₂materials (M=transition metal). For example, replacement of Ni withmetals of higher d-electron count, such as Cu, was predicted tosignificantly increase the energy of the Fermi level as compared toNi₃(HITP)₂. Such changes in electronic structure were likely related toobserved differences in chemiresistive response, and point to apotential strategy for tuning the selectivity of the material towardsdifferent types of analytes.

In conclusion, the synthesis of Cu₃(HITP), a new 2D MOF with highelectrical conductivity has been described. The results demonstratedthat targeting 2D frameworks based on o-phenylenediamine linkages was ageneral strategy for the synthesis of conductive MOFs. It wasestablished that such materials can be used for the fabrication ofsimple chemiresistive sensor devices, and that the response ofisostructural MOFs can be tuned by choice of metal center. These resultssuggest a promising approach toward the targeted synthesis of newsensing materials based on rational synthetic variation of conductiveMOFs.

Working Example 4

The following example provides additional details regarding thematerials and synthesis of the MOF prepared in Working Example 3.

Materials.

Commercially available chemicals were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich orTCI, except for Tris(Dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0) which waspurchased from Oakwood Products. All reagents were used as receivedunless otherwise noted, 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexaaminotriphenylenehexahydrochloride (HATP.6HCl) was prepared according to a literatureprocedure (Chen, L.; Kim, J.; Ishizuka, T.; Honsho, Y.; Saeki, A.; Seki,S.; Ihee, H.; Jiang, D. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 7287). Solventswere used as received without further purification.

Instrumentation.

Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) patterns were recorded with a Bruker D8Advance diffractometer equipped with a Göbel mirror, rotating samplestage, LynxEye detector and Cu K_(α) (λ=1.5405 Å) X-ray source in a θ/2θBragg-Brentano geometry. An anti-scattering incident source slit(typically 1 mm) and an exchangeable steckblende detector slit(typically 8 mm) were used. The tube voltage and current were 40 kV and40 mA, respectively. Knife-edge attachments were used to removescattering at low angles. Samples for PXRD were prepared by placing athin layer of the designated materials on a zero-background silicon(510) crystal plate.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images were recorded using a ZeissUltra55 SEM equipped with an EDS detector, with an operating voltage of5 keV. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was performed on a ThermoScientific K-Alpha system equipped with an Al source and 180° doublefocusing hemispherical analyzer and 128-channel detector using a 200 μmX-ray spot size.

Pressed-pellet conductivity was measured using a home-built press aspreviously described in the literature. The powder was pressed betweentwo steel rods of 2 mm diameter inside of a glass capillary. Thethickness of the powder pellets typically ranged from 0.1 mm to 0.5 mm.

Synthesis of Cu₃(HITP)₂

Under air, a solution of HATP.6HCl (10, mg, 1.9×10⁻² mmol, 1.0 equiv) indistilled water (3 mL) was added all at once to a standing solution ofCuSO₄.5H₂O (7.0 mg, 2.8×10⁻² mmol, 1.5 equiv) in distilled water (2 mL)and concentrated aqueous ammonia (14 M; 100 μL) at 23° C. Immediateprecipitation of dark solids was observed, and the reaction mixture wasallowed to stand for 3 hours. The mixture was then centrifuged and thesupernatant decanted. The solids were vigorously stirred with distilledwater (15 mL) at 23° C. for three days, and the water exchanged twicedaily. Finally, the solids were stirred with acetone (15 mL) at 23° C.for one day, isolated by centrifugation, and then dried under vacuum(≤20 mTorr) at 23° C., affording Cu₃(HITP)₂ as a black solid (7.2 mg,95% yield).

Procedure for NH₃ Sensing Measurements.

A suspension of freshly prepared Cu₃(HITP)₂ in acetone (˜1 mg/mL) wasdrop cast onto interdigitated gold electrodes. The amount of materialdeposited was monitored by the device resistance, and starting values of10-100 kΩ were targeted. The electrodes of the device were connected toa potentiostat and the device was enclosed in a custom built PTFEchamber. A gas mixer system, comprised of two digital mass flowcontrollers (MFCs), was used to deliver up to 2 mL/min of a mixture of1% ammonia in nitrogen that was further diluted in the gas mixer withpure nitrogen delivered by the other MFC at 2.00 L/min. The potentiostatwas used to apply a constant potential of 0.100 V across the electrodes,and the current was recorded as the device was exposed to variousconcentrations of ammonia for 30 s at a time with at least 300 s of purenitrogen flow between successive measurements. Data for gas detectionmeasurements were corrected to a linear fit of the baseline current.

Procedure for Determining Cu Valency in Cu₃(HITP)₂.

The XPS data for Cu₃(HITP)₂ suggested the presence of more than one typeof Cu site. Since, the formation of Cu metal has been reported duringthe reaction of Cu(II) salts with o-phenylenediamine (opd), a series ofcontrol experiments to probe whether Cu metal was also being formed inthe synthesis of Cu(HITP)₂ was performed. Overall the data, summarizedbelow, indicated that Cu metal was not formed during the synthesis ofCu₃(HITP)₂, and therefore the XPS data was interpreted to suggest aninherent mixed-valency of the material.

To determine valency, first, Cu(OAc)₂ and opd were reacted underanaerobic conditions to form Cu(opd)₂ and Cu metal:

The above reaction proceeded as reported, and Cu metal was clearlyobserved when PXRD of the crude product was obtained. Furthermore, theCu 2p region XPS spectrum was dominated by the peaks corresponding to Cumetal. The lack of observed peaks for Cu metal in the PXRD pattern forCu₃(HITP)₂, along with the clear presence of a Cu(II) peak in the XPSspectrum, therefore indicated that Cu metal was not being formed byreduction of Cu(II) in the synthesis of Cu₃(HITP)₂.

Additionally, Cu₃(HITP)₂ was synthesized via an alternate procedurestarting from a Cu(I) precursor:

The use of a Cu(I) salt prevented the possibility of Cu(II) serving asan oxidant for the resulting Cu(diamine) complex, and instead both thediamine ligand and the Cu centers underwent aerobic oxidation. PXRD forthe product synthesized by this method showed that no Cu metal. XPS forthis sample showed the same set of peaks in the Cu 2p region as whenstarting from Cu(II). Taken together, the above data demonstrates thatno Cu metal was formed in the synthesis of Cu₃(HITP)₂, and that thematerial is likely mixed-valent as evidenced by the presence of multipletypes of Cu centers.

Working Example 5

This examples the describes the use of a conductive metal-organicframework (MOF) Ni₃(HITP)₂ as the sole active material in asupercapacitor. The supercapacitors had a relatively high gravimetriccapacitance (i.e., 140 F g⁻¹) and volumetric capacitance (i.e., 182 Fcm⁻³).

Electrochemical capacitors (EC), also known as supercapacitors orultracapacitors, are attractive small-to-medium scale capacitors thattypically provide relatively high power densities and cyclability (e.g.,up to 10 cycles). Electrochemical capacitors are classified into twomain types, the electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) andpseudocapacitors. EDLCs store energy by forming a layer of electrolyteions on the surface of a conductive electrode, there is no charge ispassed between electrolyte and electrode. While pseudocapacitors storeelectrical energy faradaically by fast redox reactions near the surfaceof the electrode, which is usually made from metal oxides or conductivepolymers.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are highly porous extended crystallinematerials that can be rationally synthesized by linking organic andinorganic units and accordingly allow for precise control over molecularand crystalline structure. However, conventional MOFs lack intrinsicelectrical conductivity, which limits the use of conventional MOFs as anactive material for electrochemical capacitors. In this example, thehighly conductive MOF Ni₃(2,3,6,7,10,11-hexaiminotriphenylene)₂(Ni₃(HITP)₂) described in Working Example 1 was used in a supercapacitoras the sole active material.

As described in Example 1, Ni₃(HITP)₂ was synthesized by reaction of2,3,6,7,10,11-hexaaminotriphenylene hexahydrochloride (HATP*6HCl) withNiCl₂ in water with addition of aqueous NH₃ under air bubbling. Thestructure of Ni₃(HITP)₂ satisfies the requirements for a supercapacitor.The conductive backbone of Ni₃(HITP)₂ is formed by stacked 2Dπ-conjugated planar layers with sufficiently large open cylindricalchannels with a diameter of about 1.5 nm (calculated based on van derWaals accessible surface). The electrical conductivity of Ni₃(HITP)₂powder was ˜10 S cm⁻¹, which is much higher than conductivity ofactivated carbon (<1 S cm⁻¹), and similar to the conductivity ofholey-graphene. The high conductivity of the Ni₃(HTP)₂ framework allowedfor electrical polarization of the surface and an efficient electricalcurrent flow. The open cylindrical channels facilitated ion transport.Ni₃(HITP)₂ material exhibited a large Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) SSAof 514 m² gr⁻¹, as calculated form a nitrogen adsorption isotherm. Poredistribution calculation based on nonlinear density functional theory(NLDFT) fitting of a nitrogen adsorption isotherm assuming cylindricalpores, showed a narrow distribution in the range of 0.8-15 nm, which wasconsistent with the structure of Ni₃(HITP)₂ and calculated shallowpotential energy surface for lateral layer displacement. These poreswere big enough to accommodate at least 1-2 electrolyte ions (van derWaals ionic radius, BF4⁻: 0.5 nm, NEt4⁺: 0.7 nm, EMIM⁺: 0.75 nm). Theefficient crystal packing the Ni₃(HITP)₂ pressed pallets havingdensities about 1.3 gr cm-3 would lead to a higher volumetric energydensities, and accordingly less dead electrolyte in packed cells,compared to conventional carbon based devices.

The performance of Ni₃(HITP)₂ in a supercapacitor was studied using atwo-electrode symmetrical cell setup. Ni₃(HITP)₂ was pressed intopellets having a thickness of about 100 um thickness and an areal massloadings of more than about 10 mg cm⁻². In order to extrapolated thesupercapacitive performance of Ni₃(HITP)₂ to cell sizes used incommercial applications the areal mass loading should be on the order of10 mg cm⁻² for an active material. A typical electrolyte used insupercapacitors, 1.5M tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEABF₄) inacetonitrile (ACN), was used.

Cyclic voltammetry (CV) measurements were performed in various potentialranges and rates. FIG. 12 shows CV at 50 mV/s rate in increasingpotential ranges up to 2V. For small potential range up to 0.5V, thecyclic voltammogram showed symmetrical nearly rectangular curveindicating pure electrical-double-layer capacitive behavior. Uponincrease of the potential window, the voltammogram showed increasedcapacitance. This behavior could be explained by the change in iondynamics as function of potential. The increased capacitance could aresult of desolvation of ions, ion-ion interaction, and penetration ofions into the pores.

Next, equivalent series resistance (ESR) was measured. Equivalent seriesresistance (ESR) describes the combined resistance of the electrolyte,the membrane separator, the internal resistance of the electrodematerial and current collector, and resistance of the interface betweenactive material and current collector. ESR limits the maximum achievablepeak power of a supercapacitor, which is defined as Pmax=V²/4*ESR, whereV is nominal cell voltage. ESR may be determined from the potential dropat the beginning of constant current discharge. In such cases.ESR=ΔV/2I, where ΔV is potential drop and I is discharge current. Theassembled Ni₃(HITP)₂ EC cell showed a low ESR value of 1.5Ω, which wasbetter than current holey-graphene capacitor at the same areal massloading.

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) in the frequency range of 1kHz to 10 mHz was also used to investigate the characteristics of theNi₃(HITP)₂. The Nyquist plots, shown in FIG. 13, obtained from EIS weretypical for supercapacitors and showed a vertical linear curve in thelow frequency range indicating capacitive behavior. FIG. 13 is a Nyquistplot, showing the imaginary part versus the real part of impedance inthe 1000 Hz-10 mHz range. The inset shows the high frequency range (1000Hz-0.5 Hz). The typical transition to Warburg region in intermediatefrequencies, which represents the frequency dependent diffusion of ionsinto the porous electrode, was observed around of 4 Hz. Notably, thecapacitive behavior at high frequency attributed to charge transferresistance was absent.

Imaginary capacitance C″, which corresponds to energy dielectric lossesdue to an irreversible process, was determined to gain additionalinsight to the characteristics of the cell. FIG. 14 shows the dependenceof the C″ on frequency. The frequency f₀ of local maximum of the curveis a characteristic of the entire system and can be roughly described asthe point where the circuit goes from purely resistive to purelycapacitive. The reciprocal of the f₀ yields a time constant, to, that isa quantitative measure of how fast the device can be charged anddischarged reversibly. The obtained time constant was 2.5 seconds, whichwas lower than for previously reported activated carbon supercapacitors,which had a time constant of 10 seconds.

The cyclic stability of Ni₃(HITP)₂ supercapacitors was alsoinvestigated. Cyclic stabilities are important for practical applicationof supercapacitors. Ni₃(HITP)₂ exhibited 76% capacitance retention over20,000 cycles at high current densities (2 A g⁻¹) as shown in FIG. 15.FIG. 15 is a graph of capacitance retention percent versus cycle number.

Specific gravimetric capacitance of Ni₃(HITP)₂ at low discharge rate of0.05 A g⁻¹ was 140 F g⁻¹, which dropped to 98 F g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹ and to 34F g⁻¹ at 10 A g⁻¹. The obtained capacitances were in the same range ascertain porous sp² carbon materials.

Conductive 2D MOF Ni₃(HITP)₂ were used as the sole active material insupercapacitors. Ni₃(HITP)₂ showed typical supercapacitive electricalresponse, low ESR values, and good specific capacitances, which was inthe same range as for other porous sp² carbon materials.

Working Example 6

The following example provides additional details regarding thematerials and methods in Working Example 5.

Materials.

Starting materials were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich or TCI and usedwithout further purification. Tris(Dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0),Pd₂(dba)₃, was purchased from Oakwood Products, Inc. (Fluorochem Ltd.).Hexane, diethyl ether, ethyl acetate, toluene, acetonitrile andsilica-gel were purchased from VWR. THF, toluene and acetonitrile wascollected from an alumina column solvent purification system.Tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEABF4) have been recrystallizedthree times from MeOH, and dried under vacuum at 90° C. for 24 h.Ni(HITP)₂ was prepared according to Example 1.

Methods.

The electrical conductivity of Ni₃(HITP)₂ was measured on 7 mm diameterpressed pellet by 4-point van der Pauw method. Keithley 2450 was used asa current source and Keithley 2182A as a voltmeter.

Cell Assembly.

A two electrode symmetrical cell setup, using 13 mm diameter pressedpallets containing 15 mg of Ni₃(HITP)₂ was used. Au (200 nm) depositedAl-foil was used as the current collectors. Celgard 3501 was used as aseparator. The cell was dried at 100° C. under vacuum (10 mtorr)overnight before electrochemical measurements in the N₂ filled glow box.

Electrochemical Characterization and Analysis.

All the electrochemical experiments were carried out using Biologicpotentiostat. EIS measurements were performed at open circuit potentialwith 10 mV amplitude multi-sinusoidal signal with drift correction asimplemented in Biologic potentiostat.

While several embodiments of the present invention have been describedand illustrated herein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readilyenvision a variety of other means and/or structures for performing thefunctions and/or obtaining the results and/or one or more of theadvantages described herein, and each of such variations and/ormodifications is deemed to be within the scope of the present invention.More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate thatall parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations describedherein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters,dimensions, materials, and/or configurations will depend upon thespecific application or applications for which the teachings of thepresent invention is/are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize,or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, manyequivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention describedherein. It is, therefore, to be understood that the foregoingembodiments are presented by way of example only and that, within thescope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto, the invention maybe practiced otherwise than as specifically described and claimed. Thepresent invention is directed to each individual feature, system,article, material, kit, and/or method described herein. In addition, anycombination of two or more such features, systems, articles, materials,kits, and/or methods, if such features, systems, articles, materials,kits, and/or methods are not mutually inconsistent, is included withinthe scope of the present invention.

The indefinite articles “a” and “an,” as used herein in thespecification and in the claims, unless clearly indicated to thecontrary, should be understood to mean “at least one.”

The phrase “and/or,” as used herein in the specification and in theclaims, should be understood to mean “either or both” of the elements soconjoined, i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some casesand disjunctively present in other cases. Other elements may optionallybe present other than the elements specifically identified by the“and/or” clause, whether related or unrelated to those elementsspecifically identified unless clearly indicated to the contrary. Thus,as a non-limiting example, a reference to “A and/or B,” when used inconjunction with open-ended language such as “comprising” can refer, inone embodiment, to A without B (optionally including elements other thanB); in another embodiment, to B without A (optionally including elementsother than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionallyincluding other elements); etc.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, “or” should beunderstood to have the same meaning as “and/or” as defined above. Forexample, when separating items in a list, “or” or “and/or” shall beinterpreted as being inclusive, i.e., the inclusion of at least one, butalso including more than one, of a number or list of elements, and,optionally, additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated tothe contrary, such as “only one of” or “exactly one of,” or, when usedin the claims, “consisting of,” will refer to the inclusion of exactlyone element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term “or”as used herein shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusivealternatives (i.e. “one or the other but not both”) when preceded byterms of exclusivity, such as “either,” “one of,” “only one of,” or“exactly one of,” “Consisting essentially of,” when used in the claims,shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the field of patent law.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase “atleast one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should beunderstood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more ofthe elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including atleast one of each and every element specifically listed within the listof elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the listof elements. This definition also allows that elements may optionally bepresent other than the elements specifically identified within the listof elements to which the phrase “at least one” refers, whether relatedor unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as anon-limiting example, “at least one of A and B” (or, equivalently, “atleast one of A or B,” or, equivalently “at least one of A and/or B”) canrefer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including morethan one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements otherthan B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally includingmore than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elementsother than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionallyincluding more than one A, and at least one, optionally including morethan one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc.

In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitionalphrases such as “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,” “having,”“containing,” “involving,” “holding,” and the like are to be understoodto be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limited to. Only thetransitional phrases “consisting of” and “consisting essentially of”shall be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases, respectively, asset forth in the United States Patent Office Manual of Patent ExaminingProcedures, Section 2111.03.

1-40. (canceled)
 41. Use of a MOF as a conductive material, wherein theMOF comprises: a plurality of metal ions, each coordinated with at leastone ligand comprising at least two sets of ortho-diimine groups arrangedabout an organic core.
 42. (canceled)
 43. Use of a MOF for chemicalsensing, wherein the MOF comprises: a plurality of metal ions, eachcoordinated with at least one ligand comprising at least two sets ofortho-diimine groups arranged about an organic core. 44-45. (canceled)46. The use of claim 41, wherein a portion of the metal ions areassociated with two, three, or four ligands, and each of those ligandsis individually associated with one, two, three, or four metal ions. 47.The use of claim 41, wherein the at least two sets of ortho-diiminegroups are least two sets of ortho-phenylenediimine groups.
 48. The useof claim 41, wherein each metal ion is a monovalent, divalent, ortrivalent metal ion.
 49. The use of claim 41, wherein each metal ion isAg⁺, Cu⁺, Au⁺, Mg²⁺, Mn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Pd²⁺, Pt²⁺, Ru²⁺,Cd²⁺, Zn²⁺, Pb²⁺, Hg²⁺, V²⁺, Cr²⁺, Ni⁺², Fe³⁺, V³⁺, Ti³⁺, Sc³⁺, Al³⁺,In³⁺, Ga³⁺, Mn³⁺, Co³⁺, and/or Cr³⁺.
 50. The use of claim 41, whereinthe organic core comprises a plurality of fused aryl and/or heteroarylrings.
 51. The use of claim 41, wherein the organic core comprises oneor more of benzyl, thiophenyl, carbazolyl, pyrrolyl, indolyl, andfuranyl rings.
 52. The use of claim 41, wherein the at least one ligandcomprising at least two sets of ortho-diimine groups arranged about anorganic core comprises the structure:

wherein n is 1, 2, or 3, and C represent one or more bonds formedbetween ring A and each ring B.
 53. The use of claim 41, wherein the atleast one ligand has the structure:

wherein: each R¹ is the same or different and moiety is selected fromthe group consisting of hydrogen, —NO₂, —R′, —F, —Cl, —Br, —I, —CN, —NC,—SO₃R′, —SO₃H, —OR′, —OH, —SR′, —SH, —PO₃R′, —PO₃H, —CF₃, —NR′₂, —NHR′,and —NH₂; and each R′ is the same or different and is optionallysubstituted alkyl or optionally substituted aryl.
 54. The use of claim41, wherein the at least one ligand has the structure:

wherein each R¹ is the same or different and is selected from the groupconsisting of hydrogen, —NO₂, —R′, —F, —Cl, —Br, —I, —CN, —NC, —SO₃R′,—SO₃H, —OR′, —OH, —SR′, —SH, —PO₃R′, —PO₃H, —CF₃, —NR′₂, —NHR′, and—NH₂; each X is the same or different and is selected from the groupconsisting of NR′, O, S, Se, and Te; and each R′ is the same ordifferent and is optionally substituted alkyl or optionally substitutedaryl.
 55. The use of claim 43, wherein a portion of the metal ions areassociated with two, three, or four ligands, and each of those ligandsis individually associated with one, two, three, or four metal ions. 56.The use of claim 43, wherein the at least two sets of ortho-diiminegroups are least two sets of ortho-phenylenediimine groups.
 57. The useof claim 43, wherein each metal ion is a monovalent, divalent, ortrivalent metal ion.
 58. The use of claim 43, wherein each metal ion isAg⁺, Cu⁺, Au⁺, Mg²⁺, Mn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Pd²⁺, Pt²⁺, Ru²⁺,Cd²⁺, Zn²⁺, Pb²⁺, Hg²⁺, V²⁺, Cr²⁺, Ni⁺², Fe³⁺, V³⁺, Ti³⁺, Sc³⁺, Al³⁺,In³⁺, Ga³⁺, Mn³⁺, Co³⁺, and/or Cr³⁺.
 59. The use of claim 43, whereinthe organic core comprises a plurality of fused aryl and/or heteroarylrings.
 60. The use of claim 43, wherein the organic core comprises oneor more of benzyl, thiophenyl, carbazolyl, pyrrolyl, indolyl, andfuranyl rings.
 61. The use of claim 43, wherein the at least one ligandcomprising at least two sets of ortho-diimine groups arranged about anorganic core comprises the structure:

wherein n is 1, 2, or 3, and C represent one or more bonds formedbetween ring A and each ring B.
 62. The use of claim 43, wherein the atleast one ligand has the structure:

wherein: each R¹ is the same or different and moiety is selected fromthe group consisting of hydrogen, —NO₂, —R′, —F, —Cl, —Br, —I, —CN, —NC,—SO₃R′, —SO₃H, —OR′, —OH, —SR′, —SH, —PO₃R′, —PO₃H, —CF₃, —NR′₂, —NHR′,and —NH₂; and each R′ is the same or different and is optionallysubstituted alkyl or optionally substituted aryl.
 63. The use of claim43, wherein the at least one ligand has the structure:

wherein each R¹ is the same or different and is selected from the groupconsisting of hydrogen, —NO₂, —R′, —F, —Cl, —Br, —I, —CN, —NC, —SO₃R′,—SO₃H, —OR′, —OH, —SR′, —SH, —PO₃R′, —PO₃H, —CF₃, —NR′₂, —NHR′, and—NH₂; each X is the same or different and is selected from the groupconsisting of NR′, O, S, Se, and Te; and each R′ is the same ordifferent and is optionally substituted alkyl or optionally substitutedaryl.